The RNAi-Competent Malaria Parasite: A Novel Strategy to Knock Down Plasmodium Genes via Non-Canonical RNAi

Malaria, caused by apicomplexan parasites of the Plasmodium species, is one of the deadliest infectious diseases worldwide. Despite the urgent need to identify new drug targets and vaccine candidates, a large proportion of the Plasmodium genes are uncharacterized, as tools to study gene function are limited. In many eukaryotes, genes can be silenced via RNA interference (RNAi) using artificial short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs). However, Plasmodium parasites lack the machinery required for RNAi. In this study, I therefore engineered a non-canonical RNAi machinery into the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei (P. berghei). To this end, I exploited a non-canonical RNAi pathway which requires only a single protein, Argonaute 2 (Ago2), and a specifically designed shRNA, a so-called AgoshRNA, for gene silencing. I generated a P. berghei line constitutively expressing Ago2, named PbAgo2, and demonstrated that this parasite can complete its life cycle through the mammalian and insect host, despite exhibiting a reduced growth in blood and mosquito stages. Expression of AgoshRNAs targeting the mRNA of the green fluorescent protein GFP (constitutively expressed by PbAgo2) induced a potent knockdown of GFP both in blood and in non-erythrocytic stages. As different AgoshRNAs mediated gene silencing to various levels, target gene expression could be fine-tuned. AgoshRNA-mediated gene knockdown was also possible for endogenous genes, and the knockdown of a non-essential gene phenocopied the full knockout. Additionally, the expression of a blood-stage-essential gene was reduced using RNAi. The analysis of the transcriptome of PbAgo2 by RNA sequencing suggested a possible interaction between Ago2 and a Plasmodium mRNA storage protein as a putative reason for the growth impairment. To further increase the potential applications of the RNAi-competent parasite, Ago2 expression was restricted to the liver stage using a stage-specific promoter. This transgenic line behavee indistinguishable from wild type and the expression of an AgoshRNA targeting GFP silenced fluorescence exclusively in late liver stages. In summary, PbAgo2 is a potent tool to modulate gene expression without the need to alter the genetic locus. In contrast to existing tools, PbAgo2 provides the option to target genes exclusively in a single life cycle stage, to multiplex different AgoshRNAs enabling the simultaneous knockdown of multiple genes, or to screen for phenotypes using a library of AgoshRNAs. This novel, RNAi-competent parasite line opens a wealth of new options to annotate genes in Plasmodium

REGULATORY MODIFICATIONS OF MICRORNA AND SHORT HAIRPIN RNA PRECURSORS

RNA-interference (RNAi) is ubiquitously used as a research tool, with dozens of candidates using this technology currently in FDA clinical trials. A particular segment of the RNAi world, short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) seeks to enable stable, long-term reduction of a target protein. Here, we present an optimization of shRNA structure that allows increased reduction of targeted proteins as unwanted processing events are bypassed, increasing the amount of mature RNAi species created. In Chapter 1, we present current literature as it pertains to RNAi biogenesis, regulation, and optimization of shRNA effectiveness. In Chapter 2, we present our findings of extensive shRNA precursor degradation, and complete an unbiased screen for structures that bypass this degradation and optimize RNAi activity. In Chapter 3, we offer our observations of negative processing events associated with RNA Polymerase III (RNAPIII)-driven shRNAs, including but not limited to the same extensive precursor degradation. Together, these data present new details in the dysregulation of endogenous miRNA biogenesis by shRNAs, and offer guidance towards more accurate and potent engineered shRNA regulators less likely to induce off-target effects.Doctor of Philosoph

Expression of anti-viral shRNA molecules in transgenic zebrafish

 Development of transgenic zebrafish specifically resistant to Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus mediated by short-hairpin RNA interference. Introduction of shRNAs by Tol2 transgenisis in to zebrafish overwhelmed multiple facets of the endogenous microRNA pathway including Exportin-5 and Argonaute-2 and prevented normal zebrafish development

Novel AgoshRNA molecules for silencing of the CCR5 co-receptor for HIV-1 infection.

Allogeneic transplantation of blood stem cells from a CCR5-Δ32 homozygous donor to an HIV-infected individual, the "Berlin patient", led to a cure. Since then there has been a search for approaches that mimic this intervention in a gene therapy setting. RNA interference (RNAi) has evolved as a powerful tool to regulate gene expression in a sequence-specific manner and can be used to inactivate the CCR5 mRNA. Short hairpin RNA (shRNA) molecules can impair CCR5 expression, but these molecules may cause unintended side effects and they will not be processed in cells that lack Dicer, such as monocytes. Dicer-independent RNAi pathways have opened opportunities for new AgoshRNA designs that rely exclusively on Ago2 for maturation. Furthermore, AgoshRNA processing yields a single active guide RNA, thus reducing off-target effects. In this study, we tested different AgoshRNA designs against CCR5. We selected AgoshRNAs that potently downregulated CCR5 expression on human T cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and that had no apparent adverse effect on T cell development as assessed in a competitive cell growth assay. CCR5 knockdown significantly protected T cells from CCR5 tropic HIV-1 infection

Towards Antiviral shRNAs Based on the AgoshRNA Design

RNA interference (RNAi) can be induced by intracellular expression of a short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Processing of the shRNA requires the RNaseIII-like Dicer enzyme to remove the loop and to release the biologically active small interfering RNA (siRNA). Dicer is also involved in microRNA (miRNA) processing to liberate the mature miRNA duplex, but recent studies indicate that miR-451 is not processed by Dicer. Instead, this miRNA is processed by the Argonaute 2 (Ago2) protein, which also executes the subsequent cleavage of a complementary mRNA target. Interestingly, shRNAs that structurally resemble miR-451 can also be processed by Ago2 instead of Dicer. The key determinant of these "AgoshRNA" molecules is a relatively short basepaired stem, which avoids Dicer recognition and consequently allows alternative processing by Ago2. AgoshRNA processing yields a single active RNA strand, whereas standard shRNAs produce a duplex with guide and passenger strands and the latter may cause adverse off-target effects. In this study, we converted previously tested active anti-HIV-1 shRNA molecules into AgoshRNA. We tested several designs that could potentially improve AgoshRNA activity, including extension of the complementarity between the guide strand and the mRNA target and reduction of the thermodynamic stability of the hairpins. We demonstrate that active AgoshRNAs can be generated. However, the RNAi activity is reduced compared to the matching shRNAs. Despite reduced RNAi activity, comparison of an active AgoshRNA and the matching shRNA in a sensitive cell toxicity assay revealed that the AgoshRNA is much less toxi

Mechanistic insights on the Dicer-independent AGO2-mediated processing of AgoshRNAs

Short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) are widely used for gene knockdown by inducing the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism, both for research and therapeutic purposes. The shRNA precursor is processed by the RNase III-like enzyme Dicer into biologically active small interfering RNA (siRNA). This effector molecule subsequently targets a complementary mRNA for destruction via the Argonaute 2 (AGO2) complex. The cellular role of Dicer concerns the processing of pre-miRNAs into mature microRNA (miRNA). Recently, a non-canonical pathway was reported for the biogenesis of miR-451, which bypasses Dicer and is processed instead by the slicer activity of AGO2, followed by the regular AGO2-mediated mRNA targeting step. Interestingly, shRNA designs that are characterized by a relatively short basepaired stem also bypass Dicer to be processed by AGO2. We named this design AgoshRNA as these molecules depend on AGO2 both for processing and silencing activity. In this study, we investigated diverse mechanistic aspects of this new class of AgoshRNA molecules. We probed the requirements for AGO2-mediated processing of AgoshRNAs by modification of the proposed cleavage site in the hairpin. We demonstrate by deep sequencing that AGO2-processed AgoshRNAs produce RNA effector molecules with more discrete ends than the products of the regular shRNA design. Furthermore, we tested whether trimming and tailing occurs upon AGO2-mediated processing of AgoshRNAs, similar to what has been described for miR-451. Finally, we tested the prediction that AgoshRNA activity, unlike that of regular shRNAs, is maintained in Dicer-deficient cell types. These mechanistic insights could aid in the design of optimised AgoshRNA tools and therapeutic

Efficient Knockdown and Lack of Passenger Strand Activity by Dicer-Independent shRNAs Expressed from Pol II-Driven MicroRNA Scaffolds

The expression of short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) may result in unwanted activity from the co-processed passenger strand. Recent studies have shown that shortening the stem of conventional shRNAs abolishes passenger strand release. These Dicer-independent shRNAs, expressed from RNA polymerase III (Pol III) promoters, rely on Ago2 processing in resemblance to miR-451. Using strand-specific reporters, we tested two designs, and our results support the loss of passenger strand activity. We demonstrate that artificial primary microRNA (pri-miRNA) transcripts, expressed from Pol II promoters, can potently silence a gene of choice. Among six different scaffolds tested, miR-324 and miR-451 were readily re-targeted to direct efficient knockdown from either a CMV or a U1 snRNA promoter. Importantly, the miR-shRNAs have no passenger strand activity and remain active in Dicer-knockout cells. Our vectors are straightforward to design, as we replace the pre-miR-324 or -451 sequences with a Dicer-independent shRNA mimicking miR-451 with unpaired A-C nucleotides at the base. The use of Pol II promoters allows for controlled expression, while the inclusion of pri-miRNA sequences likely requires Drosha processing and, as such, mimics microRNA biogenesis. Since this improved and tunable system bypasses the requirement for Dicer activity and abolishes passenger strand activity completely, it will likely prove favorable in both research and therapeutic applications in terms of versatility and enhanced safety. Keywords: RNAi, Dicer-independent shRNA, miR-451, miR-324, agoshRNA, agshRNA, passenger strand activity, Drosha, U1 promoter, Pol-II driven miRNA scaffol